Since the 16th century, the word restorative had been used to describe rich and highly flavored soups or stews capable of restoring lost strength. Restoratives, like all other cooked foods offered and purchased outside the home during this period of history, were made by guild members.

Where does the term restaurant derive from, and what does it mean?
The word restaurer meaning to restore.
How were cooked foods purchased outside the home?
Guilds – each guild held a monopoly on that items
Know the following influential figures and their contribution:
Monsieur Boulanger – first version of a restaurant
Antonin Careme – the cook of kings and the king of cooks; grande cuisine (1700s or the 18th century)
Auguste Escoffier – emperior of the world’s kitcens – refined grande cuisine and created what’s referred to as cuisine Classique (1800s or 19th century)
Fernand Point – nouvelle cuisine, with a trend toward lighter, more naturally flavored and more simply prepared foods (mid-20th century, 1900s)
Alice Waters – American or California cuisine that swept across the country with a goal to serve fresh food, rejecting the popularity of processed and packaged food
Wolfgang Puck – fusion cuisine, combining ingredients or preparation methods associated with one ethic or regional cuisine
Charlie Trotter – multi-course dining, emphasized veggies over meat and highlighted the raw movement
Thomas Keller – The French Laundry restaurant, and emphasized clean eating/work clean method
Ferran Adria – Spanish and known as the Salvador Dali of the kitchen. Restaurant, elBulli, voted best of the world’s restaurants four times. He heard the expression Creativity means not copying, said by Jacques Maximin. elBulli served food that engaged all of the senses – cooked dishes looked flash frozen.
Know the following terms:
Grande Cuisine - the rich, intricate and elaborate cuisine of the 18th and 19th-century French aristocracy and upper classes. Carême and the Grand Cuisine - Marie-Antoine (Antonin) Carême was known as the cook of kings and the king of cooks.
Nouvelle Cuisine - French for "new cooking," this was a 20th-century movement away from the classic cuisine principles and toward a lighter cuisine based on natural flavors, shortened cooking times, and innovative combinations. Fernand Point was a master practitioner of this movement
Ethnic Cuisine – cuisine shared by a group of people with a common cultural heritage rather than by geography or political influences
California or New American Cuisine - A late 20th-century movement that first became popular in California and spread across the U.S. It stresses the use of fresh, locally grown, seasonal produce and high quality ingredients simply prepared in a fashion that preserves and emphasizes natural flavors. This was championed by Alice Waters when she opened Chez Panisse in Berkeley in 1971. Her goal was to serve fresh food, rejecting the processed and packaged food movement.
Fusion Cuisine - The blending or use of ingredients and/or preparation methods from various ethnic, regional or national cuisines in the same dish; also known as transnational cuisine.
Modernist Cuisine - During the 1990's, scientists in the U.S., England, France and Spain, began to see food preparation as a distinct and worthy field of exploration. They wanted to understand why food behaved the way it did. Thus molecular gastronomy was born. That term was coined by British physicist Nicholas Kurti and French chemist Hervé. The modern offshoot is what's known as the modernist cuisine defined first by Nathan Myhrvold who used to work at Microsoft. It's an avant-garde approach to food preparation.
What is the kitchen brigade?
Modern organization of the kitchen to help it run efficiently and effectively.
What is the order of the modern kitchen brigade?
The kitchen is led by the Executive Chef, or Chef de Cuisine, sets the menu, nutrition, safety and sanitation standards and presentation of the menu.
This role is typically followed by the Sous Chef whose primary responsibility is to make sure that the food is prepared, portioned, garnished and presented according to the Executive Chef's standards.
Next is the Chef de Partie, or station chefs who produce the menu items.
The Saucier is the sauté station chef who holds one of the most demanding jobs in the kitchen, responsible for most of the sauces and all sautéed items.
The Poissonier is the fish station chef responsible for fish and shellfish items and their sauces.
The Grillardin is the grill station chef, responsible for all grilled items.
We have the Friturier, the fry station chef; the Rôtisseur, the roast station chef; the Potager, the soup station chef; the Légumier, vegetable station chef; the Garde-Manger, or pantry chef, is responsible for the cold food preparations, including salads and dressings, cold appetizers, charcuterie items, pâtes, terrines, and similar dishes; the Tournant, known as the roundsman or swing cook who works where needed; The Pâtissier, or pastry chef, is responsible for all baked items, including breads, pastries, and desserts - this role supervises the Boulanger, or bread baker, who makes the breads, rolls, and baked flaky dough containers to hold savory dishes, the Confiseur, who makes candies and petit fours, the Glacier, who makes the chilled and frozen desserts, and the Décorateur, who makes showpieces and special cakes.
Demi-Chefs are assistants, and Commis are second-year cooks. Apprentis are student cooks.
Define the five characteristics of a professional Chef
Knowledge - chefs must be able to identify, purchase, utilize, and prepare a wide variety of foods.
Judgment - Selecting menu items, how much to purchase, how to combine ingredients and approve finished items.
Taste - Produce foods that taste great; chefs can only do this when they are confident about their own perceptions of flavor and taste.
Skill - Culinary school doesn't turn someone into a chef. Nothing but practical, hands-on experience will provide even the most academically gifted student with the skills needed to produce, consistenly and efficiently, qualify foods or to organize, train, motivate, and support staff.
Dedication - Becoming a chef is demanding and hard work. You may find the busy rush times to be exciting, or you may prefer the quieter environment of an early morning bakery.

2. TOOLS & EQUIPMENT

The right tools for the job get it done well.

What is NSF?
National Sanitation Foundation
Know the uses for the following knives/sharpening equipment:
Chefs knife – 8-14” chopping, slicing, mincing
Utility knife – 6-8” fruits, veggies, all purpose
Boning knife – 5-7” separate meat from the bone
Paring knife – 2-4” detail work
Cleaver – chopping cutting through bone
Slicer – meats
Serrated Slicer – bread/fruits/veggies
Butcher Knife – 6-14” fabricating raw meat
Steel – straightening knives between sharpening
Sharpening stone – flat brick, puts edge in dull blade
Know the different tools used for measuring and portioning:
Scales
Volume measures
Ladles
Portion scoops
Thermometers
Timers
Which metal conducts heat the best? Second best?
Copper, followed by aluminum.
What are the pros and cons of copper, aluminum, and stainless steel?
Copper conducts heat well, but is heavy and expensive. Aluminum can be dented easily. Stainless steel conducts heat poorly but commonly used in the home kitchen.
When referring to 200, 400, 600, 800, in terms of hotel pans, that is regarding the…?
Depth
What is the difference between the chinois and china cap?
China cap is perforated, the chinois is a fine mesh
What is processing equipment? Examples.
Blender, mixer
What is heavy equipment? Examples.
Ovens, industrial mixer,

3. FLAVORS & FLAVORINGS

Flavoring an item adds a new taste to a food and alters its natural flavors. Flavorings include herbs, spices, vinegars, and condiments. Seasoning an item enhances the natural flavors of a food without dramatically changing its taste; salt is the most common seasoning.

Define the following terms:
Flavor – adds a new element to a food/alters the flavor
Mouthfeel – feel in the mouth caused by texture, temp, consistency
Aroma – smells that hit the nasal receptors
Flavoring - adds a different taste than what was there before
Seasoning – enhances the item like salt on a steak
What are the five tastes?
Sweet, salty, bitter, sour, umami
What are the factors that affect perceptions of flavors?
Fats, temp, consistency,
What are the guidelines for flavoring food?
Flavorings should not hide the taste or aroma of the primary ingredient; flavorings should be combined in balance, so as to not overwhelm the palate; flavorings should not be used to disguise poor quality or poorly prepared products; flavorings should be used sparingly when foods are to be cooked over an extended period of time (flavorings can intensify over time); always add flavorings and seasonings a small amount at a time.
What is a flavor pairing? Provide an example.
Some combinations are timeless like rosemary with lamb, dill with salmon, or nutmeg with spinach while other combinations are less common (but still delicious).
What is a flavor profile, and what elements can it consist of?
A food's flavor profile describes its flavor from the moment the guest gets the first whiff of its aroma until they swallow the last bite. It's a way to evaluate a dish's sensory characteristics and identify contrasting or complementing items that could be served with it.
What is a cuisine? What factors make up a cuisine?
A cuisine is a distinctive style of cooking, encompassing unique ingredients, techniques, dishes, and traditions tied to a specific culture or region, shaped by factors like climate, economy, history, and religion. Key elements include staples (corn, wheat, rice), flavors (spices, herbs), preparation methods (braising, frying, fermenting), and cultural practices, all forming a region's culinary identity.
Factors can include climate and geography, religion and beliefs, economic factors and ingredients.
What are herbs? Examples?
Herbs are from a group of aromatic plants whose leaves, stems or flowers are used as a flavoring.
Basil, bay leaves, chives, cilantro, curry leaves, dill, lavender, lemongrass, marjoram, mint, peppermint, oregano, rosemary, sage, tarragon, thyme
What are spices? Examples?
Any of a large group of aromatic plants whose bark, roots, seeds, buds or berries are used as a flavoring
Allspice, anise, star anise, caraway, cardamom, cayenne, paprika, crushed chilis, cinnamon, cloves, coriander, cumin, fennel, fenugreek, galangal, ginger, horseradish, mustard seed, nutmeg, peppercorns, sesame seeds, sumac, tamarind, turmeric, wasabi

4. PRINCIPLES OF COOKING

The Effects of Heat
Foods are composed of various essential components, including proteins, carbohydrates (which encompass both starches and sugars), water, and fats, as well as small but significant amounts of vitamins and minerals. When heat is applied to these nutrients, remarkable changes occur in their shape, texture, color, and flavor. For a more detailed understanding of these transformations, refer to Table 10.1, which illustrates these processes. It's important to note that the rate at which a substance undergoes changes during heating or cooling varies significantly based on its specific composition. By gaining a deeper insight into these changes and mastering the techniques to control them effectively, you will be well-equipped to prepare foods that not only meet but exceed your desired characteristics and expectations.
Proteins Coagulate
The heating of protein during cooking changes its structure, causing it to coagulate (change from a semiliquid state to a solid state). Proteins are large, complex mole-cules found in every living cell, plant as well as animal. They are formed from amino acids that are chemically bonded into long, loosely folded chains. In the presence of heat, the protein chains unfold (or denature). As they are heated, the protein chains then rebond and solidify into a solid mass. In other words, as proteins cook, they lose moisture, shrink and become firm. See Figure 10.2. Common examples of protein coagulation are the firming of meat fibers during cooking, egg whites changing from a clear liquid to a white solid when heated and the setting of the structure of wheat proteins in bread during baking. The process of coagulation begins as proteins are heated to 140°F (60°C). Most proteins complete coagulation at 160–185°F (71–85°C). When heated for too long or above 185°F (85°C), most proteins dry out and toughen. Proteins also denature in the presence of an acid or salt. When an acid such as citrus juice, vinegar or wine is added to proteins as in a marinade or cooking liquid, it helps to tenderize them.
Starches Gelatinize
Gelatinization is the term for the cooking of starches. Starches are complex carbohy-drates present in plants and grains such as potatoes, wheat, rice and corn. When a mix-ture of starch and liquid is heated, remarkable changes occur. The starch granules absorb water, causing them to swell, soften and clarify (become slightly clear). The liquid visibly thickens because of the water being absorbed into the starch granules and the granules themselves swell and occupy more space. Gelatinization occurs gradually over a range of temperatures—150–212°F (66–100°C)—depending on the type of starch. Starch gelatinization affects not only sauces or liquids to which starches are added for the express purpose of thickening, but also any mixture of starch and liquid that is heated. For example, the flour (a starch) in cake batter gelatinizes by absorbing the water from eggs, milk or other ingredients as the batter bakes. This causes part of the firming and drying associated with baked goods. See Figure 10.3. Gelatinization of starch also takes place when beans or pasta absorb water, swell and soften during cooking.
Sugars Caramelize
The process of cooking sugars is caramelization. As sugars cook, they gradually darken from golden to deep brown and change flavor. Caramelized sugar is used in many sauces, candies and desserts. But caramelized sugars are also partly responsible for the flavor and color of bread crusts and the browning of meats and vegetables. In fact, the process of caramelization is responsible for most flavors we associate with cooking. The Maillard reaction, named for the French scientist who discovered this principle, describes the process of sugar breaking down in the presence of protein. Maillard browning occurs when proteins and carbohydrates are heated to 250°F (121°C) and above. The product darkens and develops complex, meaty and baked flavors. (Higher alkaline foods and certain foods such as eggs when cooked for a long period of time will brown at lower temperatures.) Some of the aromas and flavors of roasted nuts, chocolate and coffee derive from Maillard browning. When we talk about browning, we are referring to this process of caramelization. Sucrose (common table sugar) begins to decompose and brown starting at 290°F (143°C) or at higher temperatures when heated more quickly. The naturally occurring sugars in other foods, such as maltose, lactose and fructose, also caramelize, but at vary-ing temperatures. Because high temperatures are required for browning (i.e., carameliz-ing), most foods will brown only on the outside and only through the application of dry heat. Foods cooked with dry-heat methods, including those using fats, reach the high temperatures at which browning occurs. Because water cannot be heated above 212°F (100°C), foods cooked with moist-heat methods do not get hot enough to caramelize.
Water Evaporates
All foods contain some water. Some foods, especially eggs, milk and leafy vegetables, are almost entirely water. As much as 75 percent of raw meat is water. As the internal temperature of a food increases, water molecules move faster and faster until the water turns into a gas (steam) and vaporizes. This evaporation of water is responsible for the drying of foods during cooking.
Fats Melt
Fat is an energy source for the plant or animal in which it is stored. Fats are smooth, greasy substances that do not dissolve in water. Their texture varies from very firm to liquid. Oils are simply fats that remain liquid at room temperature. Fats melt when heated; that is, they gradually soften, then liquefy. Butter begins to melt at temperatures as low as 70°F (21°C). Fats will not evaporate. Most fats can be heated to very high temperatures without burning, so they can be used as a dry-heat cooking medium to fry or brown (caramelize) foods.

INTRODUCTION TO COOKING METHODS

Foods can be cooked in air, fat, water or steam, which are collectively known as cooking media. There are two general types of cooking methods: dry heat and moist heat. See Table 10.2.
Dry-heat cooking methods use air or fat. They are broiling, grilling, roasting and bak-ing, barbecuing and smoking, sautéing, pan-frying, stir-frying and deep-frying. Foods cooked using dry-heat cooking methods have a rich flavor caused by the browning that occurs when moisture on the surface of the food evaporates and sugars caramelize. Moist-heat cooking methods use water or steam. They are poaching, simmering, boiling, steaming and cooking sous vide. Moist-heat cooking methods tenderize and emphasize the natural flavors of food.
Other cooking methods employ a combination of dry-and moist-heat cooking methods. The two most significant combination cooking methods are braising and stewing. A third combination cooking method, called sous vide, resembles both braising and poaching. Each cooking method can be applied to a wide variety of foods—meats, fish, fruits, vegetables and even pastries. In the following material, we describe and show each of the cooking methods. Detailed procedures and recipes applying these methods to specific foods are found in later chapters.

Define conduction
The transfer of heat from one item to another through direct contact.
Define convection
The transfer of heat through liquid/fluid (water or gas) by natural or mechanical circulation.
Define radiation
The transfer of heat by electromagnetic waves of energy or light spreading out from a central source, such as a ceramic toaster element or a microwave.
Know the effects of heat on protein, starches, sugars, water, and fat
Protein coagulates
Starches gelatinize
Sugars caramelize
Water evaporates
Fat melts
What is dry heat cooking? What is the medium? Know examples.
Uses air or fat. Broiling, grilling, roasting, baking, BBQing, smoking, sauteing
What is moist heat cooking? What is the medium? Know examples.
Uses water or team. Poaching, simmering, boiling, steaming, sous vide.
What is combination cooking? What is the medium? Know examples.
Uses both dry and moist heat cooking techniques. Braising and stewing are the most common. The first step is to brown the main item with dry heat, then cook by simmering. Sous vide.
What are melt point, smoke point, and flash point?
The melt point is when a substance changes from solid to liquid state. Smoke point is the temperature at which an oil or fat begins to smoke and break down – also known as the burning point. Flash point is the lowest temp at which a liquid can vaporize and ignite. A measure of how flammable a liquid is.
What is the Maillard reaction?
The process when sugar breaks down in the presence of protein
What are the three ways to determine doneness?
Observing physical changes, internal temperature, and timing (but timing alone is not sufficient)
What is carryover cooking time?
The cooking that continues to occur after food is removed from a heat source; residual heat remaining in the food. Food may rise 5 to 25 degrees.

5. VEGETABLES

Vegetables are any herbaceous plant that can be partially or wholly eaten. Consumed portions include the leaves, stems, roots, tubers, seeds, and flowers. Tend to be savory.

Cabbages (Brassica, cruciferous, recognized for health promoting properties, quick growing)
Bok choy, broccoli, Brussel sprouts, kale, cauliflower, head cabbage
Fruit Vegetables (botanically a fruit, savory like flavors, and prepared or served like vegetables)
Avocados, eggplants, peppers, tomatillos, tomatoes
Gourds & Squashes (large, complex root systems, 750 species)
Cucumbers, squashes like winter (acorn, butternut, pumpkin, spaghetti) and summer (zucchini, yellow, crookneck, pattypan)
Greens - (leafy and can be served raw or cooked, high water content, strong spicy flavors)
Collard greens, mustard greens, sorrel, spinach, Swiss chard, turnip greens
Mushrooms & Truffles (fungi with no seeds, stems, or flowers, grow best in dark, high in vitamins, low in calories, popular meat sub
Mushrooms – cultivated, grown above ground
Wild – growing around trees-white, shitake, cremini, beech, straw
Truffles-grows like a tubar attached to tree roots-white & black, strong aroma/flavor, expensive
Onions (strong flavored, aromatic member of lily family)
Bulb like white, yellow, red; garlic, leeks, scallions, shallots
Pods & Seeds (seeds can be eaten)
Corn, legumes=beans and peas=green beans, string beans, snap peas, dried beans, kidney beans, pinto beans, chickpeas, lentils, black beans, okra
Roots & Tubers (single roots that extend into soil, fat underground stems)
Beets, carrots, celery root, turnips, Jersulaem artichoke, jimica, rutabagas
Stalk Vegetables (plant stems with high % of cellulose, picked young and tender
Artichokes, asparagus, bamboo shoots, celery, fennel
Baby Vegetables (either hybrids bred to be miniature or regular picked before maturity

Baby carrots, baby zucchini, baby pattypan squash, baby cucumbers

What are the advantages of selecting fresh vegetables according to seasonal

availability?

It will be more flavorful, there will be more selection, color/flavor/texture at its best, and cheaper
What is the respiration rate?
The faster the respiration rate, the faster the produce ages/decays. Vegetables respire (breathe) after harvesting.
What does ethylene gas do to veggies?
Ethylene gas ripens a vegetable; ripening speeds up with ethylene gas present like in tomatoes
What are the four ways of preserving vegetables?
Frozen-convenient, inhibits growth of microorganisms that cause spoilage, IQF-individually quick-frozen) commonly used
Dried-dramatically alters flavor, texture, appearance; loss of moisture, extends shelf life
Irradiated-ionizing radiation like gamma rays of cobalt 60, does not affect taste and texture
Canned-sealed container and high heat, grading-Grade A, Grade B, Grade C
What effects can acid and alkali have on vegetables?
Acid-prolong cooking time
Alkali-softens faster, causes nutrition loss, imparts bitterness
What are the guidelines for cooking vegetables?
Uniform shapes and sizes to promote even cooking
Peel outer skins and trim tough leaves/stems
Cook for as short of a time that will preserve color, texture, nutrients
Cook close to service time
Blanch in advance, shock, reheat when needed
When preparing an assortment, cook each separate and then combine
Delicate vegetables should be stored at what temp?
Store delicate vegetables between 34-40 degrees.
Winter squash, potatoes, and onions should be stored at what temp?
Most vegetables like potatoes, squash, onions can be stored between 50-60 degrees F. Tomatoes can be stored at room temp and used promptly.

6. FRUITS

What is the difference between a fruit and a vegetable?
A fruit develops from the ovary of a flowering plant; contains one or more seeds
Vegetables are any herbaceous plant that can be partially or wholly eaten. Consumed portions include the leaves, stems, roots, tubers, seeds, and flowers. Tend to be savory.
Know the eight categories of fruit and examples.
Berries
Bushes/vines, thin skins, picked ripe
Blackberries, blueberries, cranberries, currants, raspberries, strawberries
Citrus - thick rind/bitter pith, shrubs/trees, picked ripe, cooking/baking
Grapefruit, kumquats, lemons, limes, orange, Mandarin, hybrids like tangelos
Exotics
Not native to the area, only available in their place of origin, seasonal, more expensive
Fig, gooseberries, guava, lychees, pomegranates, dragon fruit, rhubarb, star fruits
Grapes
Single largest fruit crops (wine), grown on vines, white and black (green/red)

o Red flame, Thompson seedless, table grapes like concord, Ribier, Emperor

Melons
Gourd family, sweet and watermelons, 90% water-doesn't cook well
Cantaloupes, casaba, crenshaw, honeydew, watermelon
Pommes
Tree fruits with thin skins, firm flesh surrounding a central core
Apples, pears, quince
Stone fruit
Thin skin, soft flesh, woody pit, grown on shrubs or trees, easily bruised, sweet juicy flesh
Apricots, cherries, peaches, plums
Tropicals
Grown in tropical regions, fast transportation and distribution
Bananas, dates, kiwis, mangos, papayas, passion fruit, pineapple

What are the five ways of preserving fruits?
Extended shelf life
Irradiation - ionizing radiation destroys parasites, insects, bacteria; slows ripening
Acidulation – immersing cut fruits in acidic solution
Canning – solid pack, water pack, syrup pack
Freezing – highly effective; alters texture, stored at 0 degrees F or below
Drying – oldest preserving method, moisture is lost (prunes, plums, raisins, apricots, figs)

What temperature should most fruits be stored at?
MOST fruits stored 34-40 degrees F at high humidity
(Citrus, melons, papayas, pineapples 40-50)
(Bananas, unripe mangoes 56-60)
(Berries require cold conditions, freeze well)

What is the difference between juice, nectar, and cider?
Juice-extracted from fruits by pressure or blending. Pressure extracts just juice, blending pulverizes to separate juice from pulp)
Nectar-diluted sweet juice of peaches, apricots, guavas, black currants, or other fruits in which the juice is thick
Cider-mildly fermented apple juice

What is the difference between jam, jelly, marmalade, and preserve?
Jam – fruit gel made from pulp and sugar
Jelly – fruit gel made from juice and sugar
Marmalade – citrus jelly
Preserve – fruit gel that contains larger pieces or whole fruits

7. SALADS & DRESSINGS

Define salad
Salad is a single food or a mix of different foods accompanied or bound by a dressing. It can contain meat, grains, fruits, vegetables, nuts or cheese.
What are the two categories of salad greens? Know examples.
Tossed salad greens
Made from leafy vegetables such as lettuce, spinach, watercress, arugula….
Informal
Placing greens, garnishes, dressing in a large bowl and tossing to combine
Composed
Elegant look, arranging in an attractive fashion
Base
Body
Garnish
Dressing
Salad Nicoise
Other types of salads
Bound-Combining cooked meats, poultry, fish, shellfish, potatoes, pasta, grains/legumes with a dressing and garnishes; Chicken chutney salad
What are the characteristics of lettuces? Chicory?
Boston, iceberg, leaf, Romaine, butterhead, crisp head
Boston and bibb are the most common/popular. They form cups when separated from the heads, making convenient bases for holding other foods
Iceberg is the most common of all lettuce verities in the U.S.
Genus Lactuca
Persian royalty were served lettuce at banquets more than 2,500 years ago
Baby lettuces-Brune d'Hiver, Lola Rosa, Red Sails, Baby Green Bibb, Baby Red Oak Leaf, Pirate, Baby Red Bibb, Baby Red Romaine
Micro greens are smaller than baby lettuces. They're the first true leaves of virtually any edible greens like lettuce, spinach, kale. Very fragile
Chicory comes in a variety of colors, shapes, sizes. Most are slightly bitter. Hearty and can be cooked-grilled or braised.

o Belgian endive-the shoot of a chicory root

o Curly endive, called by its family name chicory or frisee....

o Escarole-broadleaf endive, slightly bitter

o Radicchio-resembles a small red cabbage, popular in cold salads, pretty, very bitter

Other
Arugula, rocket, cabbage family
Dandelion, weed
Mache, lamb's lettuce, tender, delicately flavored
Sorrel, sourgrass, leaves similar to spinach, tart lemony flavor
Spinach, cooked or use in salad,, deep green with rich flavor and tender
Sprouts-young alfalfa, daikon or mustard plants, mild and sweet (as opposed to daikon or mustard which are peppery)
Watercress-dime-size leaves, peppery flavor and adds spice to salads
Edible flowers-garnish
Fresh herbs-basil, thyme, taragon, oregano, dill, cilantro, marjoram, mint, sage, savory, sweet rosemary; use these sparingly
What temp should salad greens be stored? How should they be stored?
Stored in their original protective cartons in designated refrigerator between 34-38 degrees...while most other vegetables should be stored at 40-50 degrees F. Don't store greens with tomatoes, apples or other fruits that emit ethylene gas. It will cause the greens to wilt and accelerates spoilage.

What is an emulsion? What are the three types?
An emulsion is when 2 liquids that normally don't go together, like oil and water, bind.
Three types include:
Temporary-will separate within an hour (vinaigrette)
Semi-Permanent-will separate in a few hours (hollandaise)
Permanent-remains in its thickened state (mayonnaise)

What is the standard ratio for a vinaigrette dressing?
3:1 oil to acid (light, neutral oil like canola, corn, olive... and a mild champagne vinegar, red or white wine or fruit vinegar)

What is the difference between a tossed and composed salad?
Tossed salad, informal, tossing greens, dressing, other items, does not have any particular placement
Composed, arranging in an attractive fashion; salad is decorated with intention and placement
Base, body, garnish, dressing

What are the other types of salads and preparations?
Vegetable
Fruit-variety of fruits
Gelatin-when chilled, firms up
Pasta-a cooked pasta plus vegetables, shredded meat
Bound, chicken chutney

8. EGGS & BREAKFAST

What are the parts of an egg? Know the characteristics.
Shell-protects the egg
Yolk-1/3 of the egg and contains ¾ of the calories; contains lecithin which is responsible for emulsification in things like mayonnaise and hollandaise sauce. Solidifies at temps of 149-158 degrees F
White-albumen, clear portion of the egg. Constitutes 2/3 of the egg and contains more than half of the protein. Coagulates between 144-149 degrees F
Chalazae-strands that anchor the yolk in place

What temperature does the egg white and yolk coagulate at?
White-144-149 degrees F
Yolk-149-158 degrees F

What are the grades of eggs? What are the differences between the grades?
Grade AA-compact spread, clear/firm albumen, prominent chalazae cords, clean shell
Grade A-spreads slightly, clear/firm albumen, yolk firm/stands fairly high, shell clean
Grade B-spreads wide, clear/weak/watery albumen, yolk enlarged and flattened, shell stains, use in baking, bulk egg products

At what temp should eggs be stored? How can the shelf life be extended?
Store eggs at temps below 45 degrees F or below 36 degrees they can keep for 4-5 weeks.

What is the temperature range for simmering?
Simmering is between 180-200 degrees F

What is the temperature range for poaching?
Poaching an egg constitutes a temp of 160-180 degrees F. Poaching should not include boiling an egg because it will result in a tough, hard egg that may be discolored.

9. DAIRY

What is milk made up of?
Milk is made up primarily of water. Whole milk is 3.5% milk fat, 88% water, 8.5% other milk solids (proteins, milk sugar [lactose] and minerals).
Know the four types of milk processing techniques.
Raw milk, which is not pasteurized; pasteurization=161 degrees for 15 seconds; ultra pasteurization=280 degrees for 2-4 seconds; UHT-ultra-high temperature processing=280-300 degrees for 2-6 seconds
What is the fat content of whole milk, reduced fat, low fat, and nonfat?
Whole milk=3.5% Reduced fat=2% Low fat=1% Nonfat=below .5% fat content
What are concentrated milks? Know examples and differences
Evaporated milk-removing 60% of the water from whole, homogenized milk
Sweetened condensed milk-removing 60% of water removed and adding large amounts of sugar, 40-45%
Dry milk powder-removing all moisture from pasteurized, whole milk.

What are the three components of butter? Percentages?
80% milk fat, 16% water and 2-4% milk solids
Sweet butter (unsalted)=salted
European=82-86% milk fat, churned from cultured cream
Whipped butter=incorporating air into the butter, decreased shelf life
Clarified butter=melted and milk solids removed to clarify it

At what temp should milk and butter be stored?
At or below 41 degrees F for milk and between 32-35 degrees F for butter (wrapped). Unsalted butter is best kept frozen until ready for use.

What is clarified butter?
Clarified butter is removing the milk solids. Melt butter, skip the top for the solids, strain and cool

What are the six varieties of cheese? Know examples

Fresh/unripened-Mozzerella, feta, ricotta, 40-80% moisture, creamy, tart
Soft-Brie, camembert, 50-70% moisture, thin skins, creamy
Semi-soft, fontina, gouda, gorgonzola, 40-50% moisture, mild/buttery/sliceable,
Firm, cheddar, Manchego, Emmenthaler, 30-40% moisture, not hard or brittle
Hard, Parmigiano Reggiano, Pecorino Romano, 30% moisture, grated
Goat, chevre, produced in a variety of shapes

10. STOCKS & SAUCES

What is stock?
A stock is a flavored liquid – made with chicken, veal and beef bones and simmered in a liquid for a period of time to extract the flavors of the ingredients. A stock is the key to a great soup, sauce or braised dish.
What is the difference between white and brown stock?
A white stock contains chicken, veal and beef bones, with water and vegetables. A brown stock is made of chicken, veal and beef bones but the bones and mirepoix are caramelized first and a tomato product is added.
What is mirepoix? Ratios?
50% onion, 25% celery, 25% carrot by weight
What are the principles of stock making (7 steps)

Start in cool water
Simmer gently
Skim frequently
Strain carefully
Cool quickly
Store properly
Degrease

What is the St. Philip’s ratio for convenience-based stock?
1 tsp of convenience based stock per cup of warm water
What are the three components of MOST sauce?
Liquid + Thickener + Seasonings
What is the ratio of roux?
Equal parts fat/flour by weight
What is the standard roux to liquid ratio?
1 oz of roux per cup of liquid
What are the three types of roux? Differences?
White
Brown
Blond
What are other kinds of thickening agents?
Cornstarch
Arrowroot
Liaison – mixture of egg and heavy cream to add richness/smoothness; minimal thickening
What are the mother sauces? What is the liquid and thickening agent for each?
Hollandaise – Butter/egg
Espagnol – Brown sauce/brown roux
Bechamel – Milk/White Roux
Tomato – Tomato/Blond Roux
Veloute – White stock/Blond roux
What is a traditional sauce?
Rooted in French cuisine. Based on the mother sauces with a roux as thickeners.... Traditional/Classical sauces are generally created by taking a "mother" sauce and adding flavoring ingredients to create desired variation.
What is a contemporary sauce?
Fresh ingredients/modern techniques. Pesto, yogurt sauces.... modern twist on a sauce. Might not thicken.

11. SOUPS

What are the three categories of soup? Know examples
Clear soup – beef broth or consommés – stock or broth that's been clarified
Thick soup – cream soup, puree
Other soup – bisques, chowders
What is the difference between a broth and a stock?
Very similar; but broths are made with meat instead of just bones, and they can be served as finished dishes whereas stocks are used to prepare other items
What is the process for making a consommé?
A consommé is a stock or broth that's been clarified to remove impurities so that it is crystal clear. It will be rich in flavor, dark, substantial body. To clarify, a clearmeat mixture of egg whites, ground meat, poultry or fish, mirepoix, herbs, spices and acidic product like toomato, lemon juice or wine... bring to a simmer. As the albumen in the egg whites begin to coagulate it traps impurities. The clearmeat ingredients will rise to the liquid's surface, forming a raft. The consomme is then strained through several layers of damp cheesecloth to remove the impurities. Then degreased by cooling or refrigerating and removing the solidified fat.
What is clearmeat, and what is it used for?
Clearmeat is the chef term for the mixture of egg whites and other ingredients added to stocks during the clarification process.
What is tempering?
Tempering is adding warm, simmering liquid to the cold element like fat to warm up the fat so that it can be incorporated. It prevents curdling or clumping.
What temperature should hot soup be served at?
Hot clear soups: 210 degrees – near boiling
Hot cream soups should be served between 190°F and 200°F for optimal flavor and heat, though food safety requires a minimum of 135°F, with ideal serving balancing enjoyment and safety around 165°F-185°F (74-85°C) to prevent scalding, as tongues are sensitive above 153°F.
Hot cream soups 190-200
Cold – 41 degrees
Cold soups, like gazpacho or vichyssoise, should be served fridge-cold, ideally at or below 40°F (4°C) for peak refreshing flavor, served in chilled bowls to maintain that crispness and avoid a lukewarm, unappetizing texture. Food safety dictates cold foods must stay under 40°F (or 41°F in some codes) to keep them out of the "danger zone" where bacteria thrive.
What are the portion sizes for soup?
2-3 fl oz as an hors d'oeurve; 6-9 fl oz for appetizer; main course 10-14 fl oz.

12. MEAT COOKERY

What is a primal cut?
Primary vision of muscle, bone, connective tissue produced by initial butchering of the carcass
What is a subprimal cut?
Basic cuts produced from each primal.
What is the makeup of muscle tissue?
72% water, 20% protein, 7% fat, 1% minerals
Why does meat shrink when it is cooked?
Because water evaporates and fats melt.
What does heat do to collagen?
Using moist heat, collagen contracts and becomes more tender and breaks down into gelatin and water.
What method of cooking is best for muscles that are used most frequently? Why?
What is marbling?
When an animal fattens, some of the water and proteins in the lean muscle tissue are replaced with fat and appears as marbling – adding tenderness and falvor to meat and is a principal factor in determining meat quality.
Is inspection mandatory?
Yes
Is grading mandatory? What are the grades?
No. Quality Grades, Yield Grades
Quality-tenderness, juiciness, flavor
Yield-measures usable meat
What is the difference between wet aging and dry aging?
Wet aging-storing vacuum-packed meats under refrigeration for up to 6 weeks.
Dry aging-storing fresh meats in an environment of controlled temperature, humidity and airflow for up to 6 weeks. Develops mold, which adds flavor but trimmed off later.
What factors determine the cuts of meat for a food service operation?
Menu-identifies types of cooking methods used (broiled, grilled, roasted, satueed, fried). Menu price-cost constraints may prevent an operation from using the best quality meats available
Meat should be stored between what temp range in the fridge?
30-35 degrees F.
What is the ideal temp for freezing meat?
Flash freezing –50 degrees F.
What are tying, barding, trussing, and larding?

13. POULTRY

What are the differences between white meat and dark meat?
What are the six categories of poultry?

Chicken
Duck
Goose
Guinea
Pigeon
Turkey

What are the classes of chicken, turkey, and duck?
Chicken:
Rock Cornish game hen/Cornish game hen: Less than 5 weeks old.
Broiler or Fryer: Less than 10 weeks old.
Roaster or Roasting Chicken: 8 to 12 weeks old, or 5 pounds or more.
Capon: Less than 4 months old.
Hens/Stewing: Over 10 months.
Turkey:
Fryer-Roaster Turkey: Less than 12 weeks old.
Young Turkey: Less than 6 months old.
Mature or Old Turkey: Over 15 months of age.
Duck:
Broiler Duckling or Fryer Duckling: Young duck (usually under 8 weeks of age).
Roaster Duckling: Young duck (usually under 16 weeks of age).
Mature Duck or Old Duck: Duck (usually over 6 months of age).

Is inspection mandatory?
Yes
Is grading mandatory? What are the grades?
No. USDA A, B C.
What is air-chilled poultry?
Cold, purified air to reduce the core temp of the birds after death in lieu of water.
What is the difference between free-range and pasture-raised chicken?
Chickens that have access to an area outside the chicken house are free-range, whereas pasture raised. Are birds that have been raised out of doors with access to fresh vegetation.
Poultry should be stored at what temperature?
32-34 degrees F up to 2 days. Frozen poultry should be kept at 0 degrees F or below.
Poultry should be cooked to what temperature?
165 degrees F.

14. PORK

How is the carcass of a pig broken down for primal cuts?
Split down the backbone, dividing the carcass into bilateral halves. Each side is further broken down into the primal cuts.
What are the five primal cuts of pork?

Shoulder
Boston Butt
Belly
Loin
Fresh ham

Where is the pork shoulder located? What cooking method(s) are best?
Pork shoulder is the lower portion of the hog's foreleg – 20% of the carcass weight. Shoulder contains the arm and shank bones. Any cooking method due to hogs being slaughtered at a young age so the shoulder is tender enough. But, it is one of the least tender cuts of pork – high % of connective tissue that requires long cooking.
Dry heat – BBQ (carnitas); roast or bake
Where is the Boston butt located? What cooking method(s) are best?
Boston butt is a square cut just above the primal pork shoulder – 7% of the carcass weight. Moist heat like braising or slow cooking are best.
Dry heat – BBQ; broil or grill; sauté
Moist heat – simmer
Where is the pork loin located? What subprimal cuts come from the pork loin?
The pork loin is cut from directly behind the Boston butt and includes the entire rib section as well as the loin and portion of the sirloin area. 20% of carcass weight.
Subprimal cuts include:
Pork loin chop
Pork back ribs
Pork tenderloin
Pork loin
Baby back ribs
Sirloin chops
Rib roasts/sirloin roasts
Pork loin is the only part that is NOT smoked or cured.
Any cooking method – Dry heat, combination
Most popular cut is the chop which comes from the loin.
Where is the pork belly located? Contains what subprimal cuts?
The pork belly is below the loin. 16% of carcass weight. Very fatty.
Pork spareribs
Boneless pork belly
Dry heat, moist heat, combination
Where is the fresh ham located? How is the primal cut often prepared?
It is the hog's hind leg, a large cut of 24% of the carcass weight.
Cured and Smoked – like many other cuts of pork. Fresh hams also produce great roasts and can be prepared using almost any cooking method.
Dry heat (roast)
What is a heritage breed? What are the pros of breeding pigs this way?
Breeds that are not raised in modern agricultural systems. They include Berkshire, Duroc, Red Wattles
Heritage breed pork refers to meat from traditional, often older, pig breeds that were raised on small farms before the rise of industrial agriculture, known for their hardiness, flavor, and natural foraging habits.
Pork, meat or poultry less commonly raised in modern agricultural systems; protecting a genetically diverse population of livestock by raising and consuming such animals is important culturally and scientifically and will help ensure human survival.
Pork, meat or poultry raised on small farms before the rise of industrial agriculture.
Niche Pork
Specialty pork products produced by heritage breeds that are raised by using free range feeding and are hormone free
What is the minimum internal temperature for cooking pork safely?
Various degrees of doneness:
Medium Rare 145-150
Medium 150-155
Medium well 150-160
Well 160+
Most Pork Cuts:
Steaks, chops, roasts, and other pork cuts should be cooked to a minimum internal temperature of 145°F (63°C). After removing the meat from the heat source, allow it to rest for at least 3 minutes to ensure the temperature continues to rise and any potential bacteria are killed.
Ground Pork: Ground pork, including sausage, and mixtures like meatloaf, should be cooked to an internal temperature of 160°F (71.1°C).
Pork is IMPS 400s
STORING-
Refrigeration between 30-35 degrees F
Freezing – blast freezing –40 degrees F

15. BEEF

How is the steer processed for primal cuts?
The carcass is cut into 4 pieces, called QUARTERS. It is split down the backbone into two bilateral halves called sides of beef. Each half is divided into the forequarter, the front portion, and hindquarter, the rear portion, cutting along the natural curvature between the 12th and 13th ribs. The quartered carcass is further reduced into the primal cuts and the subprimal & fabricated cuts.
What is the forequarter, and what primal cuts are included?
Forequarter has four primal cuts:
Chuck
Brisket and shank
Rib
Short plate
55% of carcass weight
What is the hindquarter, and what primal cuts are included?
Consists of four primal cuts:
Short loin
Sirloin
Flank
Round
45% of carcass weight
What are the eight primal cuts of beef? (Know how to label on an image)
Chuck (shoulder)
Brisket and shank
Rib
Short plate
Short loin
Sirloin
Flank
Round
Where is the chuck located? What cooking methods are best?
The chuck is the shoulder and is on top right behind the head.
Dry heat – broil, grill, sauté, BBQ
Combination – braise, stew
Fabricated cuts:
Cross rib pot roast, chuck short ribs, cubed or tenderized steaks, stew meat, ground chuck for hamburgers, meatloaf, etc. Chuck meat is less tender and benefit from moist heat cooking like stewing and braising. New cuts like shoulder top blade can be cut into blade steaks (flat iron), less costly and dry heat cooking works.
Where are the brisket and shank located? What cooking methods are best?
Located beneath the primal chuck on the front half. This is the steer's breast (brisket) and contains ribs and breast bone and its arm, the foreshank.
Brisket – dry heat BBQ or moist heat for corned beef, or combination for pot roast. Combination for the shank, shredded beef for tamales or hash
Where is the rib located? What cuts come from the rib?
The rib is behind the chuck on top. Consists of ribs 6-12.
Prime rib – majority of the primal cut
Rib eye – boneless; can be cut into boneless rib eye steaks, also called entrecôtes
Rib roast – rib roasts available in a variety of styles like oven-ready rib roast containing the rib bones, the short feather bones and a thick layer of fat called the fat cap
Where is the short plate located? What cuts come from the short plate?
Bottom behind the brisket (below the primal rib).
Short ribs – meaty, yet high connective tissue, best when braised
Skirt steak – diaphragm muscle, marinated and grilled as fajitas
Where is the short loin located? What cuts come from the short loin?
Starts the hindquarter – behind the ribs and the first primal cut of the hindquarter.
Single rib, the 13th, and a portion of the backbone
Yields several fabricated cuts, which are the most tender and expensive cuts:
Porterhouse or T-bone steaks
Strip loin / NY Strip (club steak)
Tenderloin Hanging tender steak
Where is the sirloin located? What cuts come from the sirloin, and what cooking methods are best?
Sirloin is behind the short loin (between the short loin and round).
Produces bone-in or boneless roasts like the top sirloin butt and bottom sirloin butt tri tip (flavorful steaks/tender).
Cuts from the sirloin are cooked using dry-heat methods like broiling, grilling, or roasting.
Where is the flank located? This meat is used for what?
Directly beneath the loin, behind the short plate on the bottom.
Flank meat is usually trimmed and ground, with the exception of the flank steak, which is marinated, broiled and sliced thinly to prepare a dish known as London broil.
Where is the round located?
The primal round is the very large hind leg and contains the round bone, aitch bone, shank bone, tail bone.
It is flavorful, tender and reasonably priced. Subprimal and fabricated cuts like inside (top) round, eye round, outside round.
What is offal? Which are consumed by the cow?
The beef organ meats used in food service operations. Cuts from a gland or muscle. Also called variety meats; edible entrails (the heart, kidneys, liver, sweetbreads, tongue) and extremities like oxtail and pig's feet.
Is a USDA inspection mandatory?
USDA Inspection-MANDATORY
Is USDA grading mandatory?
Quality Grading-VOLUNTARY
What are the grades of beef?
Based on quality, marbling, amount of fat
Prime
Choice
Select
Commercial
Utility
Cutter
Canner
What are the degrees of doneness, and what is the temperature range for each one?
100s-beef classification
Degrees of doneness (What are the 6 degrees of doneness and temp ranges?)
Vary rare (bleu)
Kissing the heat on both sides-raw looking center and almost no resistance
Bacteria is on outside, just need to cook the outside (Poultry has bacteria inside so needs to be cooked to temp)
115-120 degrees F
Rare
125-130 degrees F temp range
Large, deep red center
Medium rare
Thicker band of pink
130-140 degrees F
Medium
Predominately pink
140-150 degrees F
Medium Well
Little pink, predominately brown
155-165 degrees F
Well Done
Completely brown, no coloring
165 degrees and above
Dry, chewy

16. GAME

What is game?
Animals hunted for sport or food and depends on the season and hunter's success.
What are the categories of game?
Furred or ground game
Feathered or winged game
What animals do furred and ground game consist of?
Deer
Moose
Bear
Wild boar
Elk
Rabbit
Squirrel
Raccoon
Opossum
What animals does the feathered and winged game consist of?
Upland birds-
Wild turkeys
Pheasants
Quals
Doves
Woodcocks
Songbirds, such as larks
Waterfowl, such as wild geese and ducks
Partridge
Pheasant
Quail
How is rabbit best cooked?
Young rabbit can be roasted, pan-fried, stewed or braised and is popular in rustic country style dishes. Hare are marinated with vinegar or wine before stewing.
Dry heat – sauté, pan-fry, roast
Combination – braise, stew
How is quail best cooked? What does it benefit from?
Since quail are very small, 1-2 oz of breast meat each, quail may be grilled on skewers, roasted, broiled or sautéed and are often boned and served whole with a stuffing of forcemeat or rice. They are lean and would benefit from barding.
Which game bird is most popular?
Pheasant is the most popular of game birds, introduced into Europe from Asia during the Middle Ages.
How is pheasant best cooked?
It has a mild flavor and is excellent for roasting, stewing or braising. Stock made from the carcass is used for consommé or sauce. A dressed bird weighs about 1 lb 9 oz to 2 lb 4 oz and serves two people.
Is farm or ranch-raised game required to have a USDA inspection?
Farm or ranch-raised game is subject only to voluntary inspections for wholesomeness. But game is processed under the same federal inspection requirements as domesticated meats and poultry.
Game is best stored at what temperature?
It should be well wrapped and stored under refrigeration at temps below 41 degrees F. Frozen game should be used within 4 months. Thaw under refrigeration.

17. FISH & SHELLFISH

What is the difference between round fish and flatfish?
Flat Fish
Flatfish have a flattened body, both eyes on one side, swim horizontally on the seafloor, and yield four fillets (e.g., halibut, flounder, sole).
Round fish
Cylindrical body, eyes on both sides, swim upright, and yield two fillets (e.g., salmon, cod).
The key difference is body shape, eye placement, swimming style, and how they're filleted for cooking.

Round Fish
Bass
Catfish
Cod
Eels
Herring
Snapper
Salmon
Catfish
Freshwater, aquafarmed, moderate fat content, sweet flavor, firm texture, any cooking method
Cobia

Flat Fish
Asymmetrical compressed bodies
Swim in a horizontal position \
Both eyes on top of their heads
Bottom dwellers – begin life in coastal saltwater areas
Flounder, sole, halibut

How many fillets do you get from flatfish and round fish?
Round fish – 2 fillets
Flat fish – 4 fillets

What are the three kinds of mollusks? Know examples.
Mollusks – shellfish characterized by soft, unsegmented bodies with no internal skeleton. Hard outer shell. Invertebrate shellfish with soft bodies covered by a shell of one or more pieces. They live in both fresh and salt water.
They are classified as univalves (oysters), bivalves (clams, mussels), or cephalopods (octopus, squid).
In summary, mollusks are soft-bodied invertebrates that can be found in a variety of habitats and come in many shapes and sizes, often protected by a hard shell.
Gastropods: Snails, slugs, and sea slugs.
Bivalves: Clams, oysters, mussels, and scallops.
Cephalopods: Octopuses, squids, and nautiluses.

What is a crustacean?
Also a shellfish...
Hard outer skeleton and jointed appendages
Found in both fresh and salt water – hard outer shell and jointed appendages; breathe through gills.
Crayfish
Crabs
Lobster
Shrimp

What is the minimum internal temperature at which fish and shellfish should be

cooked?

145 degrees F

Who inspects and grades fish and shellfish?
U.S.D.C. - US Department of Commerce

What are the types of inspections, and which is eligible for grading?
Type 1 Inspection – plant, product and processing methods from the raw materials to the final product
Type 2 Inspection – performed in a warehouse; determines whether the product complies with purchase agreement criteria like condition, weight, labeling and packaging integrity.
Type 3 Inspection – for sanitation.
Only fish inspected under Type 1 are eligible for grading.

The grades assigned to fish are A, B or C. Grade A products are top quality and must have good flavor and odor and be practically free of physical blemishes or defects. The great majority of fresh and frozen fish and shellfish consumed in restaurants is Grade A. See Figure 20.7. Grade B indicates good quality; Grade C indicates fairly good quality. Grade B and C products are most often canned or processed.

What factors determine freshness in fish?
Smell – slight sea smell but no odor
Eyes – clear and full, not sunken (means fish is drying)
Gills – intact and bright red; brown gills are a sign of age
Texture – firm, mushy is a sign of poor quality or age
Fins & Scales – moist and without excessive drying
Moistness – moist and glistening, without bruises or dark spots
Movement – shellfish should be purchased live and should show movement

What temp should fish and shellfish be stored at?
Between 30-34 degrees F

How should fish and shellfish be stored?
Should be shipped on ice and stored on ice in the refrigerator as soon as possible; Whole fish layered directly in crushed/shaved ice on a perforated pan so the melted ice drains away. Cubed ice may be substituted if it is put in plastic bags and placed on top of fish to prevent bruising and denting.

18. POTATOES, GRAINS & PASTA

What is the difference between mealy, all-purpose, and waxy potatoes
Mealy, or starchy, potatoes have a high starch content/thick skin. Best for baking. Low sugar content allows them to be deep fried to cook interior without burning exterior. Tend to fall apart when broiled.
Waxy have low starch content and thin skin. Best for broiling and will hold shape better in soups and potato salad. Tend to become limp and soggy when deep fried because of their high moisture content.
All-purpose have a medium starch content – somewhere between mealy and waxy, which makes them suitable for most cooking methods.
What is the difference between a yam and a sweet potato?
Sweet potatoes – tubers that originated in the New World but are from a different botanical family than other potatoes.
Two types – boniato, white or Cuban sweet potato (yellow flesh, dry, mealy texture); and a red sweet potato (darker orange, moister flesh and high in sugar)
Yams are a third type of tuber that is botanically different from other potatoes; yams are less sweet than sweet potatoes.
Yams and sweet potatoes can be used interchangeably. Yams are Asian in origin and are now found in Africa, South America and the southern U.S.

What is grain?
Botanically, grains are grasses that bear edible seeds. Corn, rice and wheat are the most significant grasses in our diets. The fruit (seed or kernel) and the pant of these common grasses are both referred to as a grain.
What are the parts of a grain?
Bran-tough outer layer covering the endosperm; good source of fiber
Endosperm-largest part of the kernel; good source of protein and carbohydrates (starch)
Germ-smallest portion of the grain; only part that contains fat.
These can be separated by milling

In what ways can corn be processed?
Cornmeal-drying and grinding a special type of corn known as dent. Can be yellow, white or blue.
Hominy-dried corn that has been soaked in hydrated lime or lye
Grits-grinding dried hominy

What is rice? What are the three seed sizes?
Rice is the starchy seed of a semiaquatic grass
Long Grain-most versatile and popular; firm, fluffy, separate when cooked
Short Grain-more starch and becomes tender and sticky when cooked. Italian risotto, Japanese sushi and Spanish paella
Medium Grain-falls between the other two; becomes sticky when cool

What is left attached to brown rice?
Bran-All rice is originally brown. If the grains can be left whole, with the bran attached, it is brown rice. If the grains are pearled, they are sold as white rice.
What is the standard ratio for white long-grain rice?
The standard ratio for cooking rice is two parts liquid to one part rice.
Wheat is most commonly milled into?
Wheat is most often milled into the wide range of flours
What are the three methods of grains?
Simmering-the most common method. Grains can be flavored by using stock as the cooking liquid.
Risotto-classic northern Italian rice dish where the grains remain firm but merge with the cooking liquid to become a creamy, almost pudding-like dish. True risotto is made with a short grain starchy rice such as Arborio, but the risotto method can be used to cook other grains like barley and oats.
Pilaf-rice grains are lightly sautéed in oil or butter with onions or seasoning for additional flavor.

What are the groups of Italian pasta?
Ribbons-strips of various widths that work well with tomato, fish and shellfish sauces
Tubes-cylindrical forms of pasta made by extrusion. The hallow tubes can be curved or straight, fluted or smooth. Tubes are preferred to meat and vegetable sauces and are often used in baked casseroles.
Shapes-the curves and textures produced provide nooks and crevices that hold sauces well. Shaped pastas, like conchiglie, farfalle, and fusilli, are preferred with meat sauces and oil-based sauces like pesto. Larger shaped pastas can be stuffed (manicotti) with meat or cheese fillings and baked.
Italian pasta is made with what ingredients?
Pure semolina flour, which gives the dough a rich, yellow color.

19. HEALTHY COOKING & SPECIAL DIETS

What is the difference between portion size and serving size?
Portion size refers to the amount of food served at a single occasion.
Portion size-the food that is actually consumed
Serving size-the amount of food recommended for consumption
What is an ingredient substitute?
Replacing one ingredient with another that has presumably similar, not necessarily identical, flavor, texture, appearance or other sensory characteristics.
What is an ingredient alternative?
Replacing one ingredient with another that has a different flavor, texture, appearance or another characteristic. An alternative does not compromise the flavor of the dish, although it may change it.
What are the three factors to think about when modifying a recipe?
Identify ingredients and menu items that are good candidates for alteration.
Consider the flavors, textures and sensations of the original recipe.
Consider the wide array of cooking techniques available-often times it makes sense to apply alternative cooking techniques when modifying a recipe to make it more healthful or acceptable for a special diet
What is a vegetarian?
A person who does not eat meat, rather just vegetables; 8 million people in the U.S. choose to forego some or all animal products int their diets.
What is a vegan
A person who eats no meat, fish or poultry or any product derived from animals such a milk, cheese, eggs, honey or gelatin.
What is a fruitarian
A person who eats only fruits, nuts, seeds or other plant products that can be gathered without harming the plant; some eat only the plant matter that has fallen off the plant already.
What is an ovo-vegetarian?
A vegetarian who eats eggs but not dairy products.
What is a lacto vegetarian?
A vegetarian who eats dariy products but not eggs.
What is an ovo-lacto vegetarian?
A person who eats plant products as well as dairy products and eggs. This diet is one of the most typical vegetarian diets.

INTRO TO FOODS

The journey through Intro to Foods, from the origination of the modern restaurant to healthy cooking and special diets.

1. PROFESSIONALISM